1. Introduction1A more detailed study of this topic appeared in (Greco forthcoming) and (Greco/Pöllath 2024).
The widespread availability of fish in the Southern Mesopotamia landscape offered both an important source of food and a useful source of fat not necessarily destined for human consumption. Although we can infer its employment already in earlier times, information on the use of fish oil substantially derives from economic documents of the Ur III period.
2. Boat building
Fish oil, bitumen and other elements are listed among the materials required for caulking and crafting boats in the Ur III period (see, e.g. CT 7, 31 BM 18390 (undated); CDLB 2020/2 § 2.3 (Šu.42.00.00); SET 272 (Šu.42.00.00). The employment of several fibrous ropes and threads suggest that, at least in this period, they were sewn plank constructions (Widell 2009: 159; Laursen/Steinkeller 2017: 108). In the traditional boat building of the Gulf region, different kinds of oil (among them fish oil) or oil mixtures are employed in sewn boats (like the Arabian dhows) for sealing and waterproofing the cordage inside the hull, in order to prevent it from rotting, and for creating a protective layer painted on the lower part of the hull below the waterline as antifouling agent and sealant (Englund 1990: 157 fn. 426 and 235 fn. 648; Pedersén 2004: 235-236; Vosmer/Belfioretti/Staples/Ghidoni 2011: 416; Laursen/Steinkeller 2017: 108).2Steinkeller (2017: 58), followed by Borrelli (2021: 14-15), assumes that fish oil was also employed in the stitching process of boat planks. The use of fish oil on boats can already be found in a Presargonic text from Ĝirsu (BIN 8 537) that registers a quantity of fish oil poured out on an already caulked boat (see Dossier A.2.4.03).
Ur III texts concerning the running of shipyards show that the quantity of fish oil employed in boat building is proportional to the capacity of the boats, with a ratio of ½ litre of “fish oil” (i3 ku6) per gur (= 300 litres) (Widell 2009: 159). Minor variations can be noted in boats of 60 or 70 gur capacity, both requiring 30 litres of fish oil (TCL 5 5673, Umma; WMAH 3, Ĝirsu).
| Boat Cargo Capacity | Fish oil in litres | Provenance | Date | Reference | |
| In gur | In litres | ||||
| 120 | 36,000 | 60 | Umma | Šu.46-AS.01 | TCL 5 5673 |
| 70 | 21,000 | 30 | Ĝirsu | Šu.46-AS.01 | WMAH 3 |
| 60 | 18,000 | 30 | Umma | Šu.46-AS.01 | TCL 5 5673 |
| 30 | 9,000 | 15 | Umma | Šu.46-AS.01 | TCL 5 5673 |
| 10 | 3,000 | 5 | Umma | Šu.46-AS.01 | TCL 5 5673 |
| 10 | 3,000 | 5 | Umma | Šu.45.00.00 | Santag 6 68 |
According to the above-mentioned ratio, we can deduce information about the ships in texts recording allotments of fish oil to the shipyards. PPAC 5 167 (date lost, Ĝirsu) registers 180 litres of fish oil for boats with 8 gur capacity. Applying the ratio of ½ a litre of fish oil per gur, we can infer it was the quantity required by about 45 boats of that capacity.
A text from Ĝirsu (CT 7 31 BM 18390, undated) registers 1,695 litres of fish oil destined for the caulking of Magan-ships. In this case, the record does not mention the number or the size of the ships, but if we assume a capacity of 180 gur for the ships used in maritime expeditions into the Gulf (as supposed by Laursen/Steinkeller 2017: 58), according to the above-mentioned ratio, the quantity of fish oil could have been destined for about 18 or 19 Magan-ships.
| Boat Cargo Capacity
|
Fish oil in litres | No. of Boats | Provenance | Date | Reference | |
| In gur | In litres | |||||
| 8 | 2,400 | 180 | 45? | Ĝirsu | […] | PPAC 5 167 |
| <180?> | <54,000> | 1,695 | 18-19? | Ĝirsu | (-) | CT 7 31 BM 18390 |
However, it should be taken into account that fish oil is not always among the materials destined for boat construction. In these cases, it is unclear whether the administration that produced the documents was not concerned about the treatment of those boats with fish oil or whether those boats had particular features tied to their construction methods or final use, whereby the use of fish oil was not necessary.
2.1. Other oil types in boat building
Other kinds of oil are attested in connection to boat building in a few instances.
Urabba, the central manager of the warehouses in Ĝirsu, once provided 10 litres of “sesame oil” (i3-ĝeš) “to caulk the boat of the king” (ma2 damar-dsuena lugal duḫ-de3: MVN 5 162, AS.06.04.00). In Umma, the scribe Ur-Sulpa’e, whose activity was tied to the local warehouses, once delivered “lard” (i3-šaḫa2) and sesame oil clearly “in lieu of fish oil” (mu i3 ku6-še3) to a shipyard (BPOA 7 1644, AS02.00.00). Some years later (SNAT 411, AS.08.06.00), Ur-Sulpa’e also provided ”butter” (i3-nun), sesame oil, fish oil, and baskets of something no longer readable for the caulking of a processional boat (Huber-Vulliet 2019: 261). The quantity of bitumen and fish oil roughly matched one boat of 20 gur cargo capacity (or two boats of 10 gur each). The use of the other oils is, though, unclear; whether they were supposed to be employed for obtaining oil mixtures or for distinct purposes.
3. Other Buildings
Apart from boat building, written documents from the Ur III period report the use of fish oil in connection to a structure defined as ḫi.bar. Nisaba 15/2 367 (ŠS.06.08.00) and Nisaba 15/2 387 (ŠS.06.00.00) from Irisaĝrig record the employment of bitumen and fish oil for the caulking of the ḫi.bar of the „old garden“ (ĝeškiri6 gu-la). The first text reports 3 jars of fish oil, implying a quantity ranging from 30 to 90 litres, while the second one 40 litres. A third text, CUSAS 40-2 548 (ŠS.09.03.00), registers only a small amount of bitumen, but not fish oil, for the caulking of the ḫi.bar of a pond. Finally, a text from Umma (BPOA 1 1652, undated) refers to one boat-mat, murux(kid.šu2.ma2) for the ḫi.bar of the „garden of the nakabtum-storehouse“ (ĝeškiri6 na-kab-tum). In light of the type of materials and locations, one can wonder whether ḫi.bar was some particular platform assembled with cordage and in contact with some body of water, requiring, therefore, an additional protective layer.
4. Consumption or body treatment
Other uses attested in the Ur III period can be tied to human consumption or body treatment. The scribe Ur-Sulpa’e once (Santag 6 165, AS.06.12.00, Umma) provided one litre of fish oil and ½ litres of sesame oil for a „sick“ individual (tu-ra). The proper use of the oils is, however, not specified; thus, it remains unclear whether they were meant for anointing or ingestion and what kind of malaise they were supposed to counteract.
5. Market ware
Fish oil was also used as a market ware in Ur III Umma records. The scribe Ur-Sulpa’e once (UTI 4 2862, ŠS.02.00.00) provided various commodities, including 20 litres of fish oil, to be sent to Madga (ancient Hit), unclear whether to buy bitumen (Heimpel 2009: 39).
In merchants’ accounts, fish oil is among the commodities invested for silver. The ratio was 30 litres per shekel of silver from AS 4 to AS 6 (TLC 5 6046: 540:18; TLC 5 6056: 120:4; Ledgers pl. 6 4: 120:4; Ledgers pl. 13 8: 60:2). In a text referring to an unclear date, AICAAB 1/2 90 1935-529, fish oil is valued at 16 litres per shekel (Englund 2012).
Ur III documents also attest to the investment of other commodities for acquiring fish oil. MVN 3 186 (Šu.39.00.00, Umma) attests to the allocation of 200 litres of barley for buying fish oil. Assuming an average value of 22 litres of fish oil per shekel of silver and a ratio of 235 litres of barley per shekel (as reported in the text, obv. 5-6), it seems likely that the amount of barley was intended for less than 20 litres of fish oil. BPOA 2 1877 (Šu.32.00.00, Ĝirsu) attests to the ratio of 15:1 for the fish oil acquired by temple administrators on behalf of local shipyards. However, it is unclear whether the higher price of fish oil in AICAAB 1/2 90 1935-529 from Umma could have been due to an earlier date.